Enumerative DC-RLL constrained coding

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods are provided for encoding and decoding constrained codewords using an enumerative coding graph. The constrained codewords may contain run-length and DC level limits. The enumerative coding graph contains a series of states and each state has multiple branches that lead to other states. Each state in the enumerative coding graph is associated with at least two bits of an enumerative codeword. Configuring the structure of the graph and cardinalities associated with each state allows the encoder to generate a code that conforms to defined constraints.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/110,921, filed Apr. 28, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,667,626,which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. ProvisionalApplication Nos. 60/914,538, filed Apr. 27, 2007 and 60/943,404, filedJun. 12, 2007. This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C.§119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/266,070, filed Dec. 2,2009. The disclosures of these applications are all hereby incorporatedby reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

This application relates to systems and method for encoding and decodingconstrained codes. In particular, this application relates systems andmethods for enumerative run-length limited (RLL) and DC limitedconstrained coding.

Constrained coding refers to a code in which there are limits or“constraints” placed on the codes that are used. For example, an RLLconstraint limits the number of consecutive zeros or ones within thecode. The limits used by constrained coding schemes produce codewordsthat are less prone to errors or in which errors are more readilydetected and/or corrected.

Enumerative coding refers to an encoding and decoding technique in whichdata is encoded as a sum of a series pre-determined numbers, which maybe referred to as “cardinalities”. An enumerative encoder selectscertain of the cardinalities to represent the data to be encoded andtransmits the information on which cardinalities are selected to anenumerative decoder. The enumerative decoder, which has the samepre-determined cardinalities as the encoder, can reproduce the datausing the information received from the encoder.

Enumerative coding techniques can be used to implement basic RLLconstrained codes. Selecting certain values for the cardinalities withinan enumerative encoder ensures that the codewords generated by thatencoder is a desired RLL constraint. However, none of these enumerativecoding techniques can be used to generate codes having additional ormore complex constraints.

SUMMARY

Systems and methods for encoding and decoding constrained codes areprovided. In particular, systems and methods for enumerative run-lengthlimited (RLL) and DC limited constrained coding are provided.

Enumerative DC-RLL constrained coding may be provided through the use ofan enumerative coding graph. The enumerative coding graph may be asingle-bit enumerative coding graph or a multiple-bit enumerative codinggraph (e.g., a dual-bit enumerative coding graph). An enumerative codinggraph contains a series of states and each state has two or morebranches that lead to other states. Each state in the enumerative codinggraph is assigned at least one cardinality. During encoding, anenumerative encoder receives data and encodes that data using theenumerative coding graph. Starting at an initial state, an encodedoutput is generated by comparing the data with the cardinalityassociated with that state. Based on that comparison, one of thebranches from the state is selected and the state connected to theselected branch is selected as the next state. One or more bits of theencoded output are generated based on the selected branch. When theencoding is complete, the encoded output of the encoder is generatedbased on the path that was selected through various states and branchesof the enumerative coding graph. In some embodiments, the output of anenumerative encoder is provided to a precoder in order to generate theconstrained code. An enumerative decoder may receive a constrained codeand trace that code through the enumerative coding graph used togenerate the code in order to decode the original data.

An enumerative encoder can generate a constrained code using theenumerative coding graph because each state in the enumerative codinggraph is selected based on the proceeding bits of the constrained code.Configuring the structure of the graph and the cardinalities associatedwith each state allow the encoder to generate a code that conforms todefined constraints. In some embodiments, the enumerative coding graphis constructed such that all of the states in the graph conform to a DClimiting constraint. In some embodiments, the cardinalities in theenumerative coding graph are selected to generate codes that conform toone or more RLL constraints.

In some embodiments, the size of an enumerative coding graph may bereduced by eliminating states from the graph such as redundant states,unused states, or states that do not conform to a desired constraint.Furthermore, defining states in terms of various properties ofproceeding code portions may lead to a more efficient enumerative codinggraph than an enumerative coding graph that contains every possiblecodeword iteration. Where precoders or other stages are used with theenumerative encoder to generate a constrained code, the enumerativecoding graph may reflect the effect of these stages within the graphstructure and computations. The size of an enumerative code graph mayalso be reduced by storing cardinalities using fewer bits than thebit-lengths of the cardinalities. The cardinality values may be selectedor modified to reduce the span of the cardinalities to allow thecardinalities to be stored using fewer bits. Reduced bit-widthcardinalities may also permit the use of reduced-bit logic within theenumerative encoder.

Data may be broken up into smaller portions and may be processed inparallel to improve encoding efficiency. If the encoding of a subsequentportion of the data may depend on the results of the encoding of aprevious portion of the data, the subsequent portion may be encodedbased on one possible result and later modified if another resultoccurred.

If data is provided to an encoder that has fewer bits than the encoderis designed to handle, this partial data may be appended to thebeginning or to the end of a complete portion of data. If the partialdata is appended at the beginning, the data may be encoded from a middleportion of the enumerative coding graph so that the encoding of thepartial data terminates at the end of the graph. When enumerativeencoding is started from the middle of an enumerative coding graph astate with a large cardinality may be selected as the first state. Ifthe partial data word is appended at the end, the data may be encodedfrom the beginning of the enumerative coding graph and may end in themiddle of the graph.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The above and other aspects and advantages of the invention will beapparent upon consideration of the following detailed description, takenin conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like referencecharacters refer to like parts throughout, and in which:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary communication/storage systemthat employs an enumerative constrained code;

FIG. 2 is a portion of an illustrative enumerative coding graph that maybe used to generate an enumerative constrained code;

FIG. 3 is a portion of an illustrative enumerative coding graph that maybe used to decode an enumerative constrained code;

FIG. 4 is another illustrative enumerative coding graph that may be usedto encode an enumerative constrained code;

FIG. 5 is a modified version of the illustrative enumerative codinggraph of FIG. 4;

FIG. 6 is another modified version of the illustrative enumerativecoding graph of FIGS. 4 and 5;

FIG. 7 is another modified version of the illustrative enumerativecoding graph of FIGS. 4-6;

FIG. 8 is a diagram that illustrates the transitions from one state tothe next state based on the next codeword bit;

FIGS. 9-11 are illustrative enumerative coding graphs that can begenerated based on the state transitions of FIG. 8;

FIG. 12 is a diagram that illustrates the transitions from one state tothe next state based on the next codeword bit using a

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder;

FIG. 13 is an illustrative enumerative coding graph that can begenerated based on the state transitions of FIG. 12;

FIGS. 14A-E are illustrative portions of enumerative coding graphs thatshow an approach for grouping and calculating the cardinality values;

FIG. 15 is an illustrative 3-to-4 bit mapping table;

FIG. 16 is an illustrative block diagram of an encoder that may be usedto encode an enumerative constrained code;

FIG. 17 is an illustrative block diagram of a decoder that may be usedto decode an enumerative constrained code;

FIGS. 18-21 are illustrative block diagrams of encoders that may be usedto encode an enumerative constrained code that includes a partialdataword;

FIG. 22 is a diagram that illustrates a technique used to decode anenumerative constrained code generated from a partial codeword;

FIG. 23A is a block diagram of an exemplary hard disk drive that canemploy the disclosed technology;

FIG. 23B is a block diagram of an exemplary digital versatile disc thatcan employ the disclosed technology;

FIG. 23C is a block diagram of an exemplary high definition televisionthat can employ the disclosed technology;

FIG. 23D is a block diagram of an exemplary vehicle that can employ thedisclosed technology;

FIG. 23E is a block diagram of an exemplary cell phone that can employthe disclosed technology;

FIG. 23F is a block diagram of an exemplary set top box that can employthe disclosed technology;

FIG. 23G is a block diagram of an exemplary media player that can employthe disclosed technology;

FIG. 24 is a portion of an illustrative single-bit enumerative codinggraph; and

FIG. 25 is a portion of an illustrative dual-bit enumerative codinggraph.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Systems and methods for enumerative DC-RLL constrained coding areprovided. As used herein, the term “information” will refer to binarydigits that may be physically embodied in many ways that are known inthe art. As used herein, information to be encoded will be referred toas “user information,” and information produced by an encoder based onuser information will be referred to as “encoded information.” As willbe explained in greater detail below, the encoded information may be aconstrained code. User information may include information that hasalready been encoded using another coding scheme such as an errorcorrecting code (ECC). Similarly, the enumerative constrained codingtechniques described below may be used in conjunction with an ECC orother suitable coding techniques.

In general, the functionality of the enumerative constrained coding isimplemented in an encoder and a corresponding decoder. The primaryoperation of an encoder is to generate an n-symbol word from a k-symbolword in a particular way, where n and k are integers and n>k. Thek-symbol word is called a “dataword,” and the n-symbol word is called a“codeword.” The primary operation of a corresponding decoder is torecover the dataword from the codeword.

A constrained code encoder produces codewords that satisfy certainpredetermined constraints. Exemplary codeword constraints include,run-length limit (RLL) constraints, alternating RLL constraints,interleaved RLL constraints, and DC limit constraints. An RLL constraintlimits the number of consecutive zeros or ones within a codeword. Forexample, an RLL constraint of four limits the number of consecutivezeros and ones to four consecutive bits. The codeword 11001100 would bepermitted under this constraint, but 000001010 and 10111111 would not bepermitted. Some RLL constraints apply to zeros and ones equally, whileothers may apply only to zeros or ones or many have different limits foreach bit type. An alternating RLL constraint limits the number ofconsecutive alternating zeros and ones. For example, an alternating RLLconstraint of length eight prohibits both 01010101 and 10101010, but not01011010. An interleaved RLL constraint prohibits patterns such as0x0x0x0x and 1x1x1x1x, where x is any suitable pattern. RLL constraintsmay be specified by a run-length profile. For example, a run-lengthprofile for a zero RLL constraint may specify for each bit position in acodeword the maximum number of zeros that may follow that bit. Thereforethe zero RLL constraint run-length profile 5, 9, 9, 9, . . . 9, 8, 7, 6,5, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1 specifies an RLL of 9 with at most five zeros at thebeginning of a codeword and four zeros at the end.

Finally, a DC constraint limits the difference between the number ofzeros and ones in a codeword. For example, a DC constraint of four mayprohibit the codewords 00001010 and 10101111. The use of constrainedcodes may improve the performance of exemplary communication/storagesystem 100 shown in FIG. 1. Prohibited codewords may be more difficultto accurately detect than permitted codewords and may result in morecommunication or storage errors.

System 100 includes user information 102 that is intended forcommunication/storage. The user information 102 may be made up of aseries of datawords. The user information 102 and the datawords can beencoded by enumerative encoder 104 to encoded information 105. Encodedinformation 105 can be made up of a series of constrained codewords. Theencoded information can be modulated by modulator 106, which can performelectric-, magnetic-, or optical-based modulation, or another type ofmodulation. The modulator 106 transforms the encoded information 105into one or more signals (not shown) that can be communicated overcommunications channel 108 where the one or more signals may be affectedby noise. As used herein, “channel” refers to media, devices, and/orprocessing stages that occur between modulator 106 anddetector/demodulator 110 and can correspond to a particular path ofmedia/devices through which a signal can flow, a particular wavelengthor time slot which a signal can utilize, and/or another multiple accessscheme. For example, in FIG. 1, channel 108 can correspond to storageand write and read components of a disk drive, including a magneticstorage medium, a disk-drive read/write head, and other storage systemcomponents. In some cases, the term “channel” as used herein can alsoinclude the modulator 106 and the demodulator/detector 110. While inchannel 108, the signals may encounter error-producing phenomena, suchas device physical failure, device electrical failure, signalinterference, and/or data loss due to buffer overflow, for example. Theinterference signals and other error-producing phenomena in a channel108 will be referred to herein as “noise.” As shown by the descriptionabove, the terms channel and noise are more conceptual than physical,but they correspond to physical aspects of a system.

With continuing reference to FIG. 1, the signals on channel 108 can bereceived by a demodulator/detector 110. Demodulator/detector 110attempts to determine the encoded information 105, from a noisy signal.The result of the detector's determination will be referred to herein asdetected information 111. Where the encoded information 105 is made upof a series of codewords, the detected information 111 will be made upof a series of detected codewords. If there are no errors in thedetected information 111, the detected information 111 should be thesame as the encoded information 105. If there are errors, however, thedemodulator/detector 110 may be able to correct some or all of theerrors. If the demodulator/detector 110 is able to correct all of theerrors, the detected information 111 will be the same as the encodedinformation 105. Detected information 111 is provided to enumerativedecoder 114. If the detected information 111 is the same as the encodedinformation 105, enumerative decoder 114 may produce decoded information116 that should be the same as user information 102.

Enumerative encoding is one technique that may be used to implement RLLconstrained coding. The following is an example that illustrates theoperation of an RLL constrained enumerative coding scheme for 8-bitdatawords that produces 9-bit codewords with a zero run-length limit oftwo (i.e., only two consecutive 0's are permitted). Nine cardinalitiesare provided: W₈=125, W₇=68, W₆=37, W₅=20, W₄=11, W₃=6, W₂=3, W₁=2,W₀=1. Each of these cardinalities is associated with respective codewordbits. 8-bit dataword 01010001 (i.e., 81 decimal) may then be encodedusing these cardinalities by encoding this dataword as W₇+W₄+W₁(68+11+2=81). In resulting codeword form, each bit associated with acardinality used within the sum maybe written as a zero and theremaining bits are written as ones. Thus, the resulting codeword fromthis example would be 101101101 (with zeros at bit positions 7, 4, and 1to represent cardinalities W₇, W₄, and W₁). It can be seen that thiscodeword may be easily decoded as long as the cardinalities associatedwith each bit of the codeword are known to the decoder. While thisillustrative enumerative encoding scheme can be used to produce anordinary RLL constrained codes, the enumerative encoding scheme isunable to produce the other types of constrained codes discussed abovesuch as alternating RLL constrained codes, interleaved RLL constrainedcodes, or DC limited constrained codes. One limit of enumerativeencoders is that enumerative encoders may not be able to generatecodewords for every possible dataword input. In particular, the sum ofall of the cardinalities may be less than the value of the largestpotential dataword. Therefore, some decoders limit the size of thedataword input.

In some embodiments, a precoder may be used within the encoder in orderto further process a codeword produced by an enumerative encoder. Theprecoder may be included as part of encoder 104 or may be inserted atthe output of encoder 104. The precoder may be used to perform areversible operation on a codeword as an additional step in the encodingprocess. One benefit of using a precoder in this manner is that theprecoder may provide a computationally efficient way to supplement aprevious encoding stage such as an enumerative encoder. For example, theRLL enumerative encoder described above outputs a zero run-lengthlimited output. A precoder may be used to transform a zero run-lengthlimited codeword into a codeword that is run-length limited for bothzeros and ones. By using a precoder to perform this operation, thedesign of an RLL constrained code encoder may be simplified. Twoexemplary precoder types that may be used for this purpose will bedescribed below.

A first precoder type is a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder. Written in the time domain at a given time k, where X is theinput to the precoder and Y is the output of the precoderX_(k)=Y_(k)+Y_(k-1). In other words, for each bit input to thisprecoder, the output bit is calculated based on the previous output bit.When a zero bit is input to this precoder, the output bit is equal tothe previous output bit. When a one bit is input to the precoder, theoutput bit is the opposite of the previous output bit. Thus it can beseen that this precoder may be useful when applied to a zero run-lengthlimited code. A string of ones will be converted to an alternatingstring of ones and zeros, while a string of zeros (which will be limitedby the zero run-length limited enumerative encoder) will either remain astring of zeros or be converted to a string of ones (depending onwhether the previous output bit was a zero or one). When applied to azero run-length limited code this precoder will output an RLL code thatlimits zeros and ones. For example, the codeword 11110110 would beconverted to 10100100 (assuming that the previous output bit is a zero).

The second precoder type is a

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder, which operates in the same manner as the

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder, except that the current output bit is generated based on thebit output two time slots before the current output. Thus, the codeword11110110 would be converted to 11000111 (assuming that the two previousoutput bits are zeros). As used herein for a codeword that is processedusing a precoder, the codeword is said to be in the user domain or anenumerative codeword before precoding and in the non return to zero(NRZ) domain or a constrained codeword after the precoding.

FIG. 2 is a portion of an illustrative enumerative coding graph 200 thatmay be used to generate a enumerative constrained code in accordancewith one embodiment of the present invention. Encoding may be performedalong the graph. Each state in the graph, S₀ through S₁₄, is assigned acardinality, W(S₀) through W(S₁₄). For example, when encoding adataword, the dataword is compared at each state with the cardinalityassociated with that state. If the dataword is less than the cardinalityat that state, then one is output for that bit of the codeword and thecoding continues to the next state along the one branch of the graph. Ifthe dataword is greater or equal to the cardinality at that state, thenzero is output for that bit of the codeword, the value of thecardinality is subtracted from the dataword, and the coding continueswith the modified dataword to the next state along the one branch of thegraph. A more detailed example of this encoding process will bedescribed below with reference to FIGS. 4-7.

As with the previously discussed typical RLL enumerative encodingscheme, the codeword produced represents the encoded dataword as a sumof cardinalities. However, the present encoding scheme may be used tooutput codewords that may satisfy additional and possibly more complexconstraints such as a DC-RLL constraint. These constraints may beenforced by tracking each codeword, bit-by-bit, along graph 200, whichallows cardinalities to be set for each state that take into account allof the previous bits of the codeword. Therefore, as will be described ingreater detail below, an enumerative encoder using a graph such as graph200 may be used for enumerative DC-RLL constrained coding including anyRLL type or other suitable constraint.

FIG. 3 shows a portion of an illustrative enumerative coding graph 300that may be used to decode an enumerative coding constrained code. Ifthe graph used to encode an enumerative codeword is known by thedecoder, the decoder may trace a path back through to obtain the encodeddataword. FIG. 3 only, illustrates this path, omitting the remainingstates. For example, as illustrated by graph 300, the codeword 01001 canbe decoded by tracing a path through the graph following the branchesassociated with the codeword and summing the cardinalities of the statesthat are associated with zeros. Thus, illustrated codeword 01001 can bedecoded as the sum of W(S₀), W(S₂), and W(S₃). It should be noted thatwhile the illustrative enumerative encoding scheme described withreference to FIGS. 1 and 2, use zeros within the codeword to indicatethe cardinalities that are used to encode the dataword, other suitableencoding schemes may also be used. For example, ones or more complexpatterns of zeros and ones may also be used to represent thecardinalities within an encoded codeword.

While a full enumerative coding graph such as graph 200 may be used forenumerative DC-RLL constrained coding, the size of such a graph may beprohibitive. For example, a full graph for encoding a 7-bit datawordinto a 8-bit data word would require 255 states and cardinalities andthis number grows exponentially with the number of bits to be encoded.Therefore, it may be useful to create a graph with as few states aspossible and to group states together that can be assigned the samecardinality. FIGS. 4-7 show an illustrative example of enumerativeDC-RLL constrained coding using a reduced graph. The creation of suchgraphs and techniques for assigning cardinalities to states within agraph will be described in greater detail below with reference to FIGS.8-15.

FIG. 4 shows an illustrative enumerative coding graph 400 that may beused for enumerative constrained coding. In particular, graph 400 is anexemplary graph that can be used to encode a 7-bit dataword into an8-bit codeword. The bolded numbers above and below the states are thecardinalities associated with those states. States that are includedwithin the same oval, e.g., states S₂ and S₃, share the samecardinality. In contrast to the full graph, described, which wouldrequire 255 states and 255 individual cardinalities to encode a 7-bitdataword graph 400 only includes 23 states and 13 cardinalities. Using asimilar enumerative coding graph structure a 96-bit dataword can beencoded using four concatenated 24-bit graph portions each having only198 states and 93 cardinalities. The construction of an enumerativecoding graph such as graph 400 will be described in more detail below.

FIG. 5 shows enumerative coding graph 500 which is the same as graph400, but also indicates the path taken by dataword 1001001 (=73 decimal)as the dataword is encoded using the graph. The path is indicated usingthe bolded branches. The illustrative encoding process begins at stateS₀ where the dataword (73) is compared to the cardinality of state S₀(96). The dataword is less than this cardinality (73<96) therefore 1 isoutput as the first bit of the codeword and the encoding proceeds tostate S₁ via the 1 branch. At state S₁, the dataword (73) is compared tothe cardinality (56). The dataword is greater than the cardinality(73>=56) therefore 0 is output as the second bit of the codeword, thevalue of cardinality is subtracted from the dataword (73−56=17), and theencoding proceeds to state S₃ via the 0 branch. At state S₃, thedataword (17) is compared to the cardinality (28). The dataword is lessthan this cardinality (17<28) therefore 1 is output as the third bit ofthe codeword and the encoding proceeds to state S₅ via the 1 branch. Atstate S₅, the dataword (17) is compared to the cardinality (14). Thedataword is greater than the cardinality (17>=14) therefore 0 is outputas the fourth bit of the codeword, the value of cardinality issubtracted from the dataword (17−14=3), and the encoding proceeds tostate S₇ via the 0 branch. At state S₇, the dataword (3) is compared tothe cardinality (8). The dataword is less than this cardinality (3<8)therefore 1 is output as the fifth bit of the codeword and the encodingproceeds to state S₁₁ via the 1 branch. At state S₁₁, the dataword (3)is compared to the cardinality (4). The dataword is less than thiscardinality (3<4) therefore 1 is output as the sixth bit of the codewordand the encoding proceeds to state S₁₅ via the 1 branch. At state S₁₅,the dataword (3) is compared to the cardinality (2). The dataword isgreater than the cardinality (3>=2) therefore 0 is output as the seventhbit of the codeword, the value of cardinality is subtracted from thedataword (3−2=1), and the encoding proceeds to state S₁₉ via the 0branch. At state S₁₉, the dataword (1) is compared to the cardinality(1). The dataword is equal to the cardinality (1>=1) therefore 0 isoutput as the eighth and final bit of the codeword. The encoding ends atstate S₂₁, where all of the states of graph 500 terminate. Putting allof the bits together, the codeword output from this exemplary encodingis 10101100.

FIG. 6 shows enumerative coding graph 600 which is the same as graphs400 and 500, but which also indicates the zero branches through theencoding path using bolded, broken branches. Given a codeword (e.g.,10101100) and an enumerative coding graph (e.g., graph 600), thedataword may be recovered by summing the cardinalities of the statesleading to branches along the path with label 0 (i.e., the bolded,broken branches). In the above example, the dataword is equal to:W(S₁)+W(S₅)+W(S₁₅)+W(S₁₉)=56+14+2+1=73.

Enumerative encoding, as described above, relies upon two mathematicaloperations—comparing and subtracting. In particular, a comparisonoperation may be performed to compare a dataword with a cardinality anda subtraction operation is performed to subtract cardinality values fromthe data word. Comparators and adders are well known and relativelysimple devices. However, as the number of bits that make up thedatawords and cardinalities increases the size of the comparators andadders may also become very large. In some embodiments, reducedbit-width comparators and adders may be used within an enumerativeencoder to decrease size, cost, and complexity, of the encoder. In theseembodiments, the bit-width of the comparators and the adders may be lessthan the bit-width of the datawords and cardinalities. One exemplaryembodiment is illustrated with reference to FIG. 7.

FIG. 7 shows enumerative coding graph 700 which is the same as graphs400, 500, and 600 described above with respect to FIGS. 4-6. Graph 700illustrates that the same exemplary enumerative encoding operationdescribed above for encoding the 7-bit dataword 1001001 as 8-bitcodeword 10101100 may be performed using reduced bit-width comparatorsand adders. Graph 700 also includes the binary representation of each ofthe cardinalities and the binary comparisons that are performed at eachstate.

In order to understand the illustrative example shown in FIG. 7, ituseful to define the “span” of a binary number. The span of a binarynumber can be defined as the difference between the locations of thefirst one and the last one in the binary number, plus one. For example,111000 has a span of three, 001001 has a span of four, and 100000 has aspan of one. Returning to the example shown in FIG. 7, it can be seenthat all of the cardinalities have a span that is three or less.Therefore, even though both the dataword and the cardinalities are both7-bits long, because none of the cardinalities have a span greater thanthree bits, 4-bit comparators and adders can be used to perform therequired operations. Thus, as will be discussed in greater detail below,selecting cardinalities having reduced spans may permit the use ofreduced bit-width comparators and adders. A time index value, whichdescribes the position of the current bit within the codeword, may beused to determine which four bits of the dataword and the cardinalitiesare provided to the 4-bit comparators and adders. In particular, themost significant bits are selected to be provided to a 4-bit comparatorand adder at the beginning of the codeword (time index 0) and at eachsubsequent time index one less significant bit is provided. Theseselected four bits are illustrated in graph 700 by the bolded portionsof the dataword and cardinalities.

Selecting cardinality values with reduced spans may also reduce the sizeof the storage needed for the cardinality values. For example, if thespans of all of the cardinality values are not greater than 3, then allof the cardinality values may be stored using only four bits. The truecardinality values may then be obtained from the stored four bits byshifting the stored bits by four minus the time index. Furthermore,three bits may be used to store the cardinality values instead of fourbits if the only 4-bit cardinality value 1000 is mapped to an unusedanother 3-bit value.

Referring now to FIGS. 8-14, various exemplary illustrations andimplementations of enumerative coding graphs are shown. As discussedabove with respect to FIG. 4, it may be desirable to reduce the numberof states within an enumerative coding graph and to group together thosestates that can share the same cardinality. One approach forconstructing an enumerative coding graph is to define each state withinthe graph in such a way that all of the paths that follow any givenstate must be the same irrespective of which path leads to that state.In other words, a state should always be able to lead to the same paths.By defining states in this manner, multiple redundant states can beconsolidated into a single state without reducing the functionality ofthe graph. In addition, because the graph is designed to produce aconstrained code, those states that would not be within a path of avalid codeword can also be eliminated from the graph.

Where an enumerative coding graph is designed for use with a precoder,the graph may take into account the effect of the precoder on theencoder output. In other words, the graph is constructed in the userdomain, but is expected to produce the desired constrained codewordswithin the NRZ domain.

In one embodiment, where a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder is used with an enumerative encoder to produce a constrainedcode, the states of an enumerative coding graph may be defined based ona pair of terms (x,y). x is set to the minimum of the number of zerosand the number of ones in the codeword in the NRZ domain (i.e., afterprecoding). For example, the value of x for NRZ codeword 01001001 isequal to the minimum of five and three, which is three. y is set to zerowhenever appending a zero to the codeword in the user domain wouldimprove the DC levels of the codeword in the NRZ domain and y is set oneotherwise. As explained above, using a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder, each a zero in the user domain will result in an NRZ outputthat is the same as the previous bit. For example, adding a zero in theuser domain to NRZ codeword 01001001 would add a one to the end of thiscodeword (because the last bit is one). Adding the one in the NRZ domainwould improve the DC level (i.e., reduce the difference between thenumber of zeros and one) so y would be set to zero.

FIG. 8 is a table showing the transitions from any state to thefollowing state using the (x,y) state definition for an enumerativecoding graph using a

$\frac{1}{1 + D},$precoder. The left column of FIG. 8 shows the transitions from state(x,0) and (x,1) based on whether the next codeword bit in the userdomain is a zero or a one, whenever the number of zeros in the currentstate is not equal to the number of ones in the current state. The rightcolumn of FIG. 8 shows the transitions from state (x,0) and (x,1) basedon whether the next codeword bit in the codeword domain is a zero or aone, whenever the number of zeros in the current state is equal to thenumber of ones in the current state. The number of zeros in the currentstate will be equal to the number of ones in the current state wheneverx is equal to half of the current time index. A generic logicdescription of the transition from state (x,y) given the codeword bit bfor both of these instances is also shown in FIG. 8.

FIGS. 9-11 are illustrative enumerative coding graphs that can begenerated using the table of state transitions shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 9is a complete enumerative coding graph of all of the possible statesthat can be reached in seven time periods from the beginning of a newcodeword. Beginning at time index zero, the graph starts at either state(0,0) or (0,1), (which may be considered equivalent because they bothlead to the same next state). Then, depending on the codeword outputbits at each subsequent time index, the states transition along one oftheir respective branches to the next state. Each of the branchesrepresents the next codeword bit in the user domain, while the statesthemselves represent the status of the codeword in the NRZ domain. If aprecoder is not used with the enumerative encoder, this distinctionbetween the user domain and the NRZ domain may be ignored and thecalculation of states would be simplified.

In FIG. 10 the enumerative coding graph of FIG. 9 is shown with a numberof states removed. These states have been removed because the statesviolated a DC constraint condition of the enumerative code. The DCconstraint used for this example is that the difference between thenumber of zeros and the number of ones in the 7-bit codeword must beless than three or equivalently that each bit type must be present inthe codeword at least two times. Recalling the definition of the firstnumber in each state described above, states (0,1), (1,0), and (1,1)were removed from the last time frame because in these states thedifference between the number of zeros and ones is each of these statesis greater than three (i.e., x is less than two). All of the states fromthe previous time frames that necessarily lead to the removed states mayalso be removed.

Finally, FIG. 11 shows enumerative coding graph of FIG. 10 withredundant states consolidated and the terminal states of the graphmerged into states (0,0) and (0,1). As the set of binary sequences thatcan be generated from a state (x,y) is the same as those of (x′,y) whereboth x and x′ are greater than the minimum required value (in thisexample, two), these states can be merged. This is true because when thevalue of x is greater than the minimum value required to meet the DCconstraint, any subsequent state will also meet that DC constraint.Therefore all of the states where x is equal to three may be merged intothe states having x equal to two. Furthermore, in order to be able toconcatenate multiple enumerative coding graphs, all of the terminalstates of the graphs are merged into the initial states of the nextgraph. Although not shown in this figure, the first and last set ofstates may also be merged into just one state, e.g., (0,0). Setting theterminal states equal to the initial states permits a long dataword tobe encoded using a series of smaller concatenated graphs instead of onelarge graph. It can therefore be seen that the resulting enumerativecoding graph of FIG. 11 has the same essential structure as the firstenumerative coding graph shown in FIG. 4 above.

Where a

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder is used with an enumerative encoder to produce a DC-RLLconstrained code, the states of an enumerative coding graph may bedefined based on the triplet (x,y,z). In this triplet, x and y may bethe same as defined above for the case of the

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder. z is set to be equal zero if the last two bits of the codewordin the NRZ domain are 00 or 11, otherwise z is set to be equal one. FIG.12 shows a table showing the transitions from any state (x,y,z) to thefollowing state and FIG. 13 shows an illustrative enumerative codinggraph that can be generated using the table of FIG. 12. FIGS. 12 and 13are equivalent to FIGS. 8 and 11 described above and illustrate how theselection of a precoder (or no precoder) can affect the definition ofeach state as well as the structure of a graph constructed from thosestates.

Once an enumerative coding graph is constructed, cardinalities areassigned to each state in the graph. As mention above with respect toFIG. 4, some states within a graph may be grouped to share the samecardinality. This may be useful because fewer cardinalities would beneeded for each graph. The cardinality of a state approximatelycorresponds to the number of allowed binary words that can be generatedfrom that state. Therefore states that can generate a similar number ofsuch words can share the same cardinality. To group states to share thesame cardinality, it is helpful to develop an intuitive meaning ofcardinality values. As described, during encoding for each state withina graph, a dataword value u is compared with cardinality w. If u is lessthat w, then the encoder outputs 1 and moves on to next state. Thismeans that this cardinality w is equal to (at most) the number ofcodewords that begin with 1 and can be generated from this state. If twostates s and s′ can generate approximately the same number of codewordsthat begin with 1, they can be assigned the same cardinality. At a giventime index, after having 1 as previous output bit, the number ofcodewords that a state can generate should depends on its DC level. Notethat the number of codewords that begin with 1 that can be generatedfrom states sharing a cardinality do not have to be exactly the same.However, as this difference becomes more significant the code willbecome less efficient because, as will be described below, the smallervalue should be selected as the cardinality.

FIG. 14A shows the enumerative coding graph of FIG. 9 with circles addedto illustrate the various states that can be grouped together to sharecardinalities. For example, it can be seen that all states (1,0) and(0,1) in the graph that follow a 1 branch go to states (1,1) and (1,0)respectively. As discussed, when there is a encoder output of 1, thecurrent value of u will be unchanged. Therefore because these states((1,0) and (0,1)) lead to other states with the same codeword value,they can share a cardinality.

FIG. 14B shows the enumerative coding graph of FIG. 4 that illustratesan exemplary approach for computing cardinality values. A variable, M,used to help compute the cardinalities can be associated with each statein the graph. Recall that the cardinality of a state s relates to thenumber of words beginning with 1 that can be generated from s.Similarly, the value of M for each state s relates to the total numberof words that can be generated from s. The following four steps may beused to compute cardinality w and auxiliary variable M for a givenstate. First, the values of M and w for the state should not be toolarge such that subsequent states cannot perform the encoding. Second,the value of M must satisfy a desired run-length profile. Third, thevalue of w for states in the same group should be the same. Finally, thevalue of w should have a desired span. Each of these steps are explainedin greater detail with reference to the example of FIGS. 14C-14E.

Referring to FIG. 14B, values for M and w can be assigned to the stateson the right side of the graph and then be recursively computed fromright to left. State 21 has only one outgoing edge with label 0, so itcan only generate one word and that word does not begin with 1.Therefore for state 21, M=1 and w=0. State 20 has only one outgoing edgewith label 1, so it can only generate one word and that word beginswith 1. Therefore for state 20, M=1 and w=1. State 19 can generate anoutgoing edge with either 0 or 1, but it can only generate one word thatbegins with 1. Therefore for state 19, M=2 and w=1.

FIG. 14C shows an enumerative coding graph segment in which state s hasan edge labeled 0 going to s0 and an edge labeled 1 going to s1.Assuming that M and w have already been computed for states s0 and s1(i.e., M(s0), w(s0), M(s1), w(s1)), values of M and w need to becomputed for state s (i.e., M(s) and w(s)). As a first step, the valuesof M(s) and w(s) should be assigned such that they are not too large soas to prevent the encoding process to continue from s to s0 or s1. Morespecifically, any word beginning with 1 will go though s1. Because s1can generate M(s1) words, w(s) should be less than or equal to M(s1).Moreover, the total number of words that can be generated from s is atmost equal to the total number of words that can be generated from boths0 and s1. Therefore, M(s) should be less than or equal to the sum ofM(s0) and M(s1).

The second step, that M should satisfy the desired run-length profile,is illustrated with respect to FIG. 14D. Suppose a run-length profile attime t is j(t). This means that any word from a state at time t shouldbegin with at most j(t) zeros. In this figure, words should not bepermitted to go from state s through the last edge with the label 0 toprevent a run-length violation. Assume u is the input value at state s.According to the encoding procedure, edge 0 is selected whenever u isgreater than or equal to w(s) and the input value is updated to be uminus w(s). To go through the edge of the next state with the label 0, uminus w(s) must be greater than or equal to w(0). Repeating thisprocess, the encoder will go through the last edge with label 0 if u isgreater than or equal to the sum of w(s), w(0), w(00), . . . ,w(0^(j(t))). In order to prevent this from occurring, M(s) should beselected such that M(s) is less than or equal to the sum of w(s), w(0),w(00), . . . , w(0^(j(t))).

The third step for assigning cardinality values, stetting w for statesin the same group to same value, can be met by changing previouslycomputed values as follows. Assuming states s and s′ are in the samegroup. If after the first two steps are completed, auxiliary variablesand cardinalities of states s and s′ can be calculated as M(s), w(s),M(s′), and w(s′). If w(s) is greater then w(s′), then w(s) should bechanged to be equal to the value of w(s′). M(s) should also be reducedby the difference between the values of w(s) and w(s′). Thismodification reduces the number of words that can be generated fromstate s.

The final step in assigning cardinality values is to reduce thecardinalities, if necessary, to have the desired span. For example,given a maximum span of 4 and a computed cardinality value of 93(101101), the cardinality can be rounded down to 88 (1011000) to reducethe span. The auxiliary variable M for this state would have to bereduce by the same amount (i.e., 5). However, because the auxiliaryvariables M are not used in the actual encoding and decoding, theirspans do not need to be reduced.

FIG. 14E shows a partial enumerative coding graph that can be used as anexample for assigning cardinalities in accordance with the criteriadiscussed above. In this example M and w will be computed for states sand s′, which are in the same group. M and w of states s0 through s5 arealready computed. The run-length profile for states s and s′ is 2 andthe maximum cardinality span is 3. First M(s) should be at most 38, thesum of M(s0) and M(s1) (i.e., 21+17), and w(s) should be at most 17, thevalue of M(s1). Similarly, M(s′) should be at most 35, the sum of M(s2)and M(s3) (i.e., 20+15), and w(s′) should be at most 15, the value ofM(s3). Second, because the run-length profile is 2, a word beginningwith 000 should not be permitted from s. Therefore, M(s) should be lessthan or equal to 33, the sum of w(s), w(s0), and w(s4) (i.e., 17+10+6).If this value was greater than 38, M(s) would be kept as 38. M(s′) doesnot need to be adjusted because it cannot generate a word in violationof the run-length limit. Next, because M(s)=33, w(s)=17, M(s′)=35,w(s′)=15, w(s) is reduced by 2 to 15 and M(s) is reduced by 2 to 31 toset the cardinalities to the same values for s and s′. Finally, in orderto reduce the spans of the cardinalities to 3 from 4 (15=1111), thecardinalities of and s′ are reduced to 14 (1110). Both M(s) and M(s′)are also reduced by 1 to 30 and 34, respectively.

FIG. 16 shows a more detailed block diagram of an encoder 1600 that maybe used to generate an enumerative constrained code in accordance withsome embodiments of the present invention. Encoder receives a 191-bitdataword and outputs a 192-bit codeword. The primary elements of encoder1600 are dual 96-bit enumerative encoders 1625 and precoder 1650.Enumerative encoders 1625 receive datawords and use an enumerativecoding graph, as described above, to produce a constrained codeword inthe user domain. The user domain codeword may be converted to the NRZdomain by precoder 1650 to complete the encoding process. In someembodiments, an enumerative encoder may be provided that can encode anentire dataword. However, in some other embodiments, where the datawordsare longer than the input capacity of the enumerative encoder, thedatawords may be split up into two or more portions that are separatelyencoded, in parallel. Even though it may be possible to produce anenumerative encoder that can handle long datawords and would not requirethe datawords to be split, it may be desirable to use multipleenumerative encoders that are smaller and more efficient than a singlelarge encoder.

In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 16, the 191-bit input dataword1601 is split into two 96-bit dataword portions 1620. Each of the 96-bitdataword portions 1620 is encoded by one of the enumerative encoders1625. Enumerative encoders 1625 may each use a signal 96-bit enumerativecoding graph (not show) to encode dataword portions 1620. Alternatively,enumerative encoders 1625 may each use a series of smaller enumerativecoding graphs (not show) that are concatenated together to form a single96-bit enumerative coding graph.

In order to split 191-bit dataword 1601 into two dataword portions 1620,the 191-dataword is first split into a 3-bit section and a 188-bitsection. The 3-bit section is mapped into four bits by 3-to-4 bitmapping block 1610. FIG. 15 is a table showing an illustrative 3-to-4bit mapping. Then half of the bits output from block 1610 and half ofthe 188-bits are provided to enumerative encoders 1625 as datawordportions 1620. There are two reasons for performing this 3-to-4 bitmapping. First, this mapping allows the odd 191-bit dataword input to besplit into two equal portions. Second, and more importantly, thismapping may ensure that neither dataword portion 1620 begins with thebits 11. As previously discussed, enumerative encoders typically have alimit on how large a dataword input can be. If a dataword input islarger than this limit, the output of the encoder will not be decodable.By preventing any dataword beginning with the bits 11 from beingprovided to the enumerative encoder, this mapping reduces the maximumsize of the input to the encoder. Thus, the encoder must only bedesigned to accept numbers equal to or less than 1011 . . . 1. Afterdataword portions 1620 are encoded the datawords portions are combinedtogether into one 192-bit codeword in the user domain. In someembodiments, rather than combining the two datawords portions as shownin the present embodiment, an interleaver is provided to interleave thedatawords portions together into a single codeword. One benefit of usingan interleaver to generate the user domain codeword is that theinterleaver may be configured to ensure that an interleaved RLLconstraint is met by the encoder. The user domain codeword is providedto precoder 1650. Precoder 1650 may be any suitable precoder such as,for example, a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder or a

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder. The output of the precoder is NRZ domain codeword 1602.

As shown, encoder 1600 performs the enumerative encoding of the datawordinput in parallel. However, as described above, the enumerative encodingprocess sometimes uses information about previous codeword bits whenencoding a dataword. For example, the enumerative coding graph used inconnection with the

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder used a (x,y,z) triplet to define each state. The z portion ofthis triplet is defined based on the previous two bits of the codewordin the NRZ domain, namely whether the bits are 01/10 or 00/11. Thus,when splitting a dataword into multiple dataword portions it may not bepossible to begin encoding a second portion until the encoding of thefirst portion is complete and the last bits of the codeword areprovided. While this issue may present a challenge when using certainprecoders such as a

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder, this issue does not arise with other precoders such as a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder. This issue would not arise with a

$\frac{1}{1 + D}$precoder because as seen in FIG. 9, the first state within theenumerative coding chart does not depend on previous bits.

One solution that may permit parallel encoding for encoding schemes thatdepend on previous bits is to start the encoding from a known state andthen to alter the resulting codeword based on the previous codeword,should that be necessary. Returning to the

$\frac{1}{1 + D^{2}}$precoder example, the enumerative encoder may be configured to alwaysstart from state (0,0,1), which corresponds to previous NRZ bits 01 or10. Then, if it turns out that the final NRZ bits of the previouscodeword are actually 00 or 11 (in which case the encoder should havestarted at state (0,0,0)), these bits should be treated as 10 or 01,respectively, by the precoder to prevent an encoding error. This may beaccomplished by sending either 10 or 01 to the precoder in place of theactual last bits of the first codeword. Equivalently, the same resultmay be achieved by flipping the first bit of the second codeword beforethe first bit is sent to the precoder with the actual last bits of theprevious codeword. Subsequently, a decoder may reverse this change priorto decoding this codeword. Thus, whenever the last two bits of apreviously received codeword are 00 or 11, the postcoder and then thedecoder would treat the last two bits as 10 or 01, respectively.

One issue that may arise from flipping bits during the encoding is thatperforming this operation may result in a run-length constraintviolation. For example, if a first code word ends with the bits 111000and the second would have codeword started with the bits 100001,flipping the first bit in the second codeword to make the codeword beginwith 000001 would result in a combined codeword having eight consecutivezeros. This issue may be resolved by modifying the run-length profileimposed by the enumerative encoder to make the constraint more strict atthe beginning of the codeword. For example, the profile 5, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9. . . may be replaced with 5, 4, 9, 9, 9, 9 . . . .

FIG. 17 shows a detailed block diagram of a decoder 1700 that may beused to decode an enumerative DC-RLL constrained code in accordance withsome embodiments of the present invention. Decoder 1700 may beconfigured to decode the output of encoder 1600, however it should beunderstood that decoder 1700 may also be configured to decode the outputof any other suitable encoder. Decoder 1700 receives 192-bit NRZ domaincodeword 1702. Postcoder 1750, which can decode the coding performed bya precoder such as precoder 1650 (FIG. 16), converts 192-bit NRZ domaincodeword 1702 into a user domain codeword. This user domain codeword maythen be split into two 96-bit portions which are provided to enumerativedecoders 725. The user domain codeword may be split in half as shown inthe figure or may be split in any other suitable way such as byde-interleaving. Decoder 1700 may be configured to split the codewordbased on the way the codeword was combined by the encoder. Enumerativedecoders 1725 decode the codeword portions into 96-bit dataword portionsthat can be recombined into 191-bit dataword 1701 using 4-to-3 bitmapping block 1710.

FIGS. 16 and 17 illustrate an encoder and decoder that may be used withan enumerative constrained code in accordance with some embodiments ofthe present invention. The code rate in these illustrative embodimentsis 191/192. 191-bit datawords are encoded into 192-bit codewords.Whenever datawords are provided to this encoder that are not a multipleof 191, the partial codeword must be processed in a way that will allowthis partial codeword to be successfully decoded. FIGS. 18-21 showillustrative encoder configurations for encoding these partialcodewords. A partial codeword may be place either at the beginning of asector or at the end of a sector. FIGS. 18 and 19 show illustrativeencoders for encoding partial codewords at the beginning of a sector andFIGS. 20 and 21 show illustrative encoders for encoding partialcodewords at the end of a sector.

FIG. 18 shows a block diagram of an illustrative encoder 1800 that isconfigured to receive a partial dataword at the beginning of a sector.Encoder 1800 operates in a similar manner as encoder 1600, except theencoder 1800 is configured to receive an input dataword that is lessthan 191 bits and greater than 96 bits. All of the elements of encoder1800 operate in a similar manner to the elements of encoder 1600, exceptwhere noted. Input dataword is divided into a first partial datawordportion that is x plus 2 bits long, where x is the number of bits bywhich this partial codeword exceeds 96 bits, and a second full datawordportion. Then the two dataword portions are each encoded by enumerativeencoders 1825 and 1826. Enumerative encoder 1825 may be a full 96-bitenumerative encoder that is being used to encode a dataword portion thatis less than 96 bits. In order for the encoding of this portion to besuccessful, the enumerative encoder 1825 may start encoding this portionfrom a state in the middle of the enumerative coding chart. A startingstate may be selected at a time stage in the chart such that the portionwill finish at the last stage of the chart. This may allow thetransition to the next codeword to be seamless. Furthermore, the statehaving the largest cardinality at the selected time stage may beselected to ensure that a large number can be encoded. Finally, theencoded user domain codewords generated by the enumerative encoders arecombined, processed by a precoder, and output as a single NRZ domaincodeword.

FIG. 19 shows encoder 1900 that operates in the same manner as encoder1800, except that encoder 1900 is provided with a partial dataword thatis less than 96 bits in length. Thus, no splitting and combining of thedata is necessary. It should be understood that illustrated encoder1900, 1800, and 1600 (as well as encoders 2000 and 2100 discussed below)may be implemented using the same encoder circuitry and that isconfigurable to encode data in the various ways described based on thedata input to the encoder circuitry or based on configuration settings.

FIG. 20 shows a block diagram of an illustrative encoder 2000 that isconfigured to receive a partial dataword at the end of a data sector.Encoder 2000 operates in a similar manner as encoder 1800, except thatin the illustrative embodiment shown in FIG. 20 the input dataword isdivided such that the partial dataword portion is taken from the end ofthe dataword. Furthermore, the partial dataword portion may be encodedusing the initial stages of enumerative coding chart so that thetransition from the previous full dataword portion to the partialdataword portion is seamless. FIG. 21 shows encoder 2100 that operatesin the same manner as encoder 2000, except that encoder 2100 is providedwith a partial dataword that is less than 96 bits in length. Thus, nosplitting and combining of the data is necessary.

When a partial codeword is placed at the end of a sector as illustratedin FIGS. 20 and 21, the decoder may need to adjust its operation tocompensate for the instances when the partial codeword ends in themiddle of the graph. FIG. 22 illustrates the operation of a decoder whendecoding a partial codeword placed at the end of a sector. As describedabove with respect to FIG. 7, a cardinality with a reduced span may bestored with fewer bits than would be ordinarily be required for a numberof that size. When accessed, the stored bits for the cardinality areshifted by an appropriate number of bits based on the time stage of theoperation. In FIG. 22, nine bits are stored for each cardinality valueand each subsequent cardinality value is shifted left an additional bit.If the decoded codeword terminates in the middle of the graph, then insome instances leftover bits of the cardinalities may not be added tothe decoded data because they have not been shifted into range. Thus, ifthere are any leftover bits in the final cardinality value added to thedecoded dataword that are equal to one, one should be added to thedecoded dataword.

Referring now to FIGS. 23A-23G, various exemplary implementations of thepresent invention are shown.

Referring now to FIG. 23A, the present invention can be implemented in ahard disk drive (HDD) 2300. The present invention may implement eitheror both signal processing and/or control circuits, which are generallyidentified in FIG. 23A at 2302. In some implementations, the signalprocessing and/or control circuit 2302 and/or other circuits (not shown)in the HDD 2300 may process data, perform coding and/or encryption,perform calculations, and/or format data that is output to and/orreceived from a magnetic storage medium 2306.

The HDD 2300 may communicate with a host device (not shown) such as acomputer, mobile computing devices such as personal digital assistants,cellular phones, media or MP3 players and the like, and/or other devicesvia one or more wired or wireless communication links 2308. The HDD 2300may be connected to memory 2309 such as random access memory (RAM), lowlatency nonvolatile memory such as flash memory, read only memory (ROM)and/or other suitable electronic data storage.

Referring now to FIG. 23B, the present invention can be implemented in adigital versatile disc (DVD) drive 2310. The present invention mayimplement either or both signal processing and/or control circuits,which are generally identified in FIG. 23B at 2312, and/or mass datastorage of the DVD drive 2310. The signal processing and/or controlcircuit 2312 and/or other circuits (not shown) in the DVD drive 2310 mayprocess data, perform coding and/or encryption, perform calculations,and/or format data that is read from and/or data written to an opticalstorage medium 2316. In some implementations, the signal processingand/or control circuit 2312 and/or other circuits (not shown) in the DVDdrive 2310 can also perform other functions such as encoding and/ordecoding and/or any other signal processing functions associated with aDVD drive.

The DVD drive 2310 may communicate with an output device (not shown)such as a computer, television or other device via one or more wired orwireless communication links 2317. The DVD drive 2310 may communicatewith mass data storage 2318 that stores data in a nonvolatile manner.The mass data storage 2318 may include a hard disk drive (HDD). The HDDmay have the configuration shown in FIG. 23A. The HDD may be a mini HDDthat includes one or more platters having a diameter that is smallerthan approximately 1.8″. The DVD drive 2310 may be connected to memory2319 such as RAM, ROM, low latency nonvolatile memory such as flashmemory and/or other suitable electronic data storage.

Referring now to FIG. 23C, the present invention can be implemented in ahigh definition television (HDTV) 2320. The present invention mayimplement either or both signal processing and/or control circuits,which are generally identified in FIG. 23C at 2322, a WLAN interfaceand/or mass data storage of the HDTV 2320. The HDTV 2320 receives HDTVinput signals in either a wired or wireless format and generates HDTVoutput signals for a display 2326. In some implementations, signalprocessing circuit and/or control circuit 2322 and/or other circuits(not shown) of the HDTV 2320 may process data, perform coding and/orencryption, perform calculations, format data and/or perform any othertype of HDTV processing that may be required.

The HDTV 2320 may communicate with mass data storage 2327 that storesdata in a nonvolatile manner such as optical and/or magnetic storagedevices, for example, hard disk drives and/or DVD drives. At least oneHDD may have the configuration shown in FIG. 23A and/or at least one DVDdrive may have the configuration shown in FIG. 23B. The HDD may be amini HDD that includes one or more platters having a diameter that issmaller than approximately 1.8″. The HDTV 2320 may be connected tomemory 2328 such as RAM, ROM, low latency nonvolatile memory such asflash memory and/or other suitable electronic data storage. The HDTV2320 also may support connections with a WLAN via a WLAN interface 2329.

Referring now to FIG. 23D, the present invention implements a controlsystem of a vehicle 2330, a WLAN interface and/or mass data storage ofthe vehicle 2330. In some implementations, the present invention mayimplement a powertrain control system 2332 that receives inputs from oneor more sensors such as temperature sensors, pressure sensors,rotational sensors, airflow sensors and/or any other suitable sensorsand/or that generates one or more output control signals such as engineoperating parameters, transmission operating parameters, brakingparameters, and/or other control signals.

The present invention may also be implemented in other control systems2340 of the vehicle 2330. The control system 2340 may likewise receivesignals from input sensors 2342 and/or output control signals to one ormore output devices 2344. In some implementations, the control system2340 may be part of an anti-lock braking system (ABS), a navigationsystem, a telematics system, a vehicle telematics system, a lanedeparture system, an adaptive cruise control system, a vehicleentertainment system such as a stereo, DVD, compact disc and the like.Still other implementations are contemplated.

The powertrain control system 2332 may communicate with mass datastorage 2346 that stores data in a nonvolatile manner. The mass datastorage 2346 may include optical and/or magnetic storage devices forexample hard disk drives and/or DVD drives. At least one HDD may havethe configuration shown in FIG. 23A and/or at least one DVD drive mayhave the configuration shown in FIG. 23B. The HDD may be a mini HDD thatincludes one or more platters having a diameter that is smaller thanapproximately 1.8″. The powertrain control system 2332 may be connectedto memory 2347 such as RAM, ROM, low latency nonvolatile memory such asflash memory and/or other suitable electronic data storage. Thepowertrain control system 2332 also may support connections with a WLANvia a WLAN interface 2348. The control system 2340 may also include massdata storage, memory and/or a WLAN interface (all not shown).

Referring now to FIG. 23E, the present invention can be implemented in acellular phone 2350 that may include a cellular antenna 2351. Thepresent invention may implement either or both signal processing and/orcontrol circuits, which are generally identified in FIG. 23E at 2352, aWLAN interface and/or mass data storage of the cellular phone 2350. Insome implementations, the cellular phone 2350 includes a microphone2356, an audio output 2358 such as a speaker and/or audio output jack, adisplay 2360 and/or an input device 2362 such as a keypad, pointingdevice, voice actuation and/or other input device. The signal processingand/or control circuits 2352 and/or other circuits (not shown) in thecellular phone 2350 may process data, perform coding and/or encryption,perform calculations, format data and/or perform other cellular phonefunctions.

The cellular phone 2350 may communicate with mass data storage 2364 thatstores data in a nonvolatile manner such as optical and/or magneticstorage devices, for example, hard disk drives and/or DVD drives. Atleast one HDD may have the configuration shown in FIG. 23A and/or atleast one DVD drive may have the configuration shown in FIG. 23B. TheHDD may be a mini HDD that includes one or more platters having adiameter that is smaller than approximately 1.8″. The cellular phone2350 may be connected to memory 2366 such as RAM, ROM, low latencynonvolatile memory such as flash memory and/or other suitable electronicdata storage. The cellular phone 2350 also may support connections witha WLAN via a WLAN interface 2368.

Referring now to FIG. 23F, the present invention can be implemented in aset top box 2380. The present invention may implement either or bothsignal processing and/or control circuits, which are generallyidentified in FIG. 23F at 2384, a WLAN interface and/or mass datastorage of the set top box 2380. The set top box 2380 receives signalsfrom a source such as a broadband source and outputs standard and/orhigh definition audio/video signals suitable for a display 2388 such asa television and/or monitor and/or other video and/or audio outputdevices. The signal processing and/or control circuits 2384 and/or othercircuits (not shown) of the set top box 2380 may process data, performcoding and/or encryption, perform calculations, format data and/orperform any other set top box function.

The set top box 2380 may communicate with mass data storage 2390 thatstores data in a nonvolatile manner. The mass data storage 2390 mayinclude optical and/or magnetic storage devices, for example, hard diskdrives and/or DVD drives. At least one HDD may have the configurationshown in FIG. 23A and/or at least one DVD drive may have theconfiguration shown in FIG. 23B. The HDD may be a mini HDD that includesone or more platters having a diameter that is smaller thanapproximately 1.8″. The set top box 2380 may be connected to memory 2394such as RAM, ROM, low latency nonvolatile memory such as flash memoryand/or other suitable electronic data storage. The set top box 2380 alsomay support connections with a WLAN via a WLAN interface 2396.

Referring now to FIG. 23G, the present invention can be implemented in amedia player 2460. The present invention may implement either or bothsignal processing and/or control circuits, which are generallyidentified in FIG. 23G at 2404, a WLAN interface and/or mass datastorage of the media player 2400. In some implementations, the mediaplayer 2400 includes a display 2407 and/or a user input 2408 such as akeypad, touchpad and the like. In some implementations, the media player2400 may employ a graphical user interface (GUI) that typically employsmenus, drop down menus, icons and/or a point-and-click interface via thedisplay 2407 and/or user input 2408. The media player 2400 furtherincludes an audio output 2409 such as a speaker and/or audio outputjack. The signal processing and/or control circuits 2404 and/or othercircuits (not shown) of the media player 2400 may process data, performcoding and/or encryption, perform calculations, format data and/orperform any other media player function.

The media player 2400 may communicate with mass data storage 2410 thatstores data such as compressed audio and/or video content in anonvolatile manner. In some implementations, the compressed audio filesinclude files that are compliant with MP3 format or other suitablecompressed audio and/or video formats. The mass data storage may includeoptical and/or magnetic storage devices, for example, hard disk drivesand/or DVD drives. At least one HDD may have the configuration shown inFIG. 23A and/or at least one DVD drive may have the configuration shownin FIG. 23B. The HDD may be a mini HDD that includes one or moreplatters having a diameter that is smaller than approximately 1.8″. Themedia player 2400 may be connected to memory 2414 such as RAM, ROM, lowlatency nonvolatile memory such as flash memory and/or other suitableelectronic data storage. The media player 2400 also may supportconnections with a WLAN via a WLAN interface 2416. Still otherimplementations in addition to those described above are contemplated.

The above described embodiments for enumerative encoding and decodinghave been illustrated using single-bit enumerative coding techniques.For example, returning to FIG. 2, each state transition withinenumerative coding graph 200 is associated with a single output bit. Itshould be understood, however, that the use of the single-bitenumerative coding graphs described above is only for ease ofillustration. As will be illustrated with reference to FIGS. 24 and 25,the embodiments described herein may also be used with multiple-bitenumerative coding techniques.

FIG. 24 is a portion of an illustrative single-bit enumerative codinggraph 2500. As with enumerative coding graph 200 of FIG. 2, each statein graph 2500, S₀ through S₅, is assigned a cardinality, W(S₀) throughW(S₆). The value of a dataword at each state is u(S_(N)), where N is thenumber of each state. When encoding a dataword along graph 2500, thedataword is compared at each state with the cardinality associated withthat state. If the dataword is less than the cardinality at that state,then one is output for that bit of the codeword and the coding continuesto the next state along the one branch of the graph. If the dataword isgreater than or equal to the cardinality at that state, then zero isoutput for that bit of the codeword, the value of the cardinality issubtracted from the dataword, and the coding continues with the modifieddataword to the next state along the one branch of the graph.

Graph portion 2500 illustrates two state transitions from an initialstate S₀ and dataword u(S₀). In the case of a transition from state S₀to state S₃ (via intermediate state S₁), the bits ‘11’ are output andthe value of the dataword is left unchanged (i.e., u(S₃)=u(S₀)). In thecase of a transition from state S₀ to state S₄ (via intermediate stateS₁), the bits ‘10’ are output and the value of the dataword is modifiedby subtracting values of the cardinality of state S₁ (i.e.,u(S₄)=u(S₀)−W(S₁)). In the case of a transition from state S₀ to stateS₅ (via intermediate state S₂), the bits ‘01’ are output and the valueof the dataword is modified by subtracting values of the cardinality ofstate S₀ (i.e., u(S₅)=u(S₀)−W(S₀)). In the case of a transition fromstate S₀ to state S₅ (via intermediate state S₂), the bits ‘00’ areoutput and the value of the dataword is modified by subtracting valuesof the cardinalities of states S₀ and S₂ (i.e.,u(S₅)=u(S₀)−W(S₀)−W(S₂)).

FIG. 25 is a portion of an illustrative dual-bit enumerative codinggraph 2600. It can be seen that dual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600is the same as single-bit enumerative coding graph 2500 of FIG. 24, withthe intermediate states of graph 2500, states S₁ and S₂, merged into theinitial state S′₀. Dual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600 includesinitial state S′₀ and four branches to states S′₁ through S′₄. Thesefour branched are associated with the dual-bit codeword outputs, ‘11’,‘10’, ‘01’, and ‘11’, respectively. Initial state S′₀ is associated withthree cardinalities, W₀, W₁, and W₂, where W₀≧W₁≧W₂. These threecardinalities (W₀, W₁, and W₂) of initial state S′₀ from dual-bitenumerative coding graph 2600 may be derived from the individualcardinalities of states S₀, S₁ and S₂ from single-bit enumerative codinggraph 2600. For example, W₂ may be equivalent to W(S₁), W₁ may beequivalent to W(S₀), and W₀ may be equivalent to the sum of W(S₀) andW(S₂). The following table lists the relationships between thecardinality values of state S′₀, W₀, W₁, and W₂, and the value of thedataword at S′₀, u(S′₀). These relationships are used to determine whichbranch is selected from state S′₀.

New Output Relationship State Bits Modified Dataword u(S'₀) < W₁ and S'₁11 u(S'₁) = u(S'₀) u(S'₀) < W₂ u(S'₀) < W₁ and S'₂ 10 u(S'₂) = u(S'₀) −W₂ u(S'₀) ≧ W₂ u(S'₀) ≧ W₁ and S'₃ 01 U(S'₃) = U(S'₀) − W₁ u(S'₀) < W₀u(S'₀) ≧ W₁ and S'₄ 00 U(S'₄) = U(S'₀) − W₀ u(S'₀) ≧ W₀

Dual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600 can be used to performenumerative coding, including encoding and decoding, using any of theembodiments described above. Furthermore, dual-bit enumerative codinggraph 2600 may be modified to reduce the number of states in the same ora similar manner as described above with respect to FIGS. 4-14.

Encoding along dual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600 may be performedusing, for example, enumerative encoder 104 (FIG. 1), enumerativeencoder 1600 (FIG. 16), or enumerative encoders 1800-2100 (FIGS. 18-21),including variations thereof. Decoding along dual-bit enumerative codinggraph 2600 may be performed in the same manner as decoding alongenumerative coding graph 300 of FIG. 3. An enumerative decoder (e.g.,decoder 114 (FIG. 1), decoder 1700 (FIG. 17) or variations thereof)traces the path in the dual-bit enumerative coding graph thatcorresponds to the coded bits. The cardinalities associated with thecoded bits in the path may be summed to generate the decoded data.

Dual-bit enumerative coding may advantageously be performed faster thansingle-bit coding, by encoding and/or decoding two bits for each state.For example, a dual-bit enumerative coding may encode/decode two bitsper clock cycle while the single-bit enumerative coding graph may onlyencode/decode one bit per clock cycle. Additionally, a dual-bitenumerative coding graph requires fewer states than an equivalentsingle-bit enumerative coding graph. For example, single-bit enumerativecoding graph 2500 of FIG. 24 uses seven states to encode two bits whiledual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600 of FIG. 25 uses only five states.This reduction in the number of states may be especially significant forlong codewords, allowing smaller enumerative coding graphs and/or longercodewords.

It should be understood that triple-bit enumerative coding,quadruple-bit enumerative coding, or any other multiple-bit enumerativecoding schemes may be used in place of the single-bit and dual-bitenumerative coding embodiments described herein. As with the transitionfrom illustrative single-bit enumerative coding graph 2500 (FIG. 24) todual-bit enumerative coding graph 2600 (FIG. 25), multiple-bitenumerative coding graphs may be generated by consolidating multiplestates into fewer states. In this way, the number of states in theenumerative coding graph can be reduced and the number of codeword bitsprocessed in each state can be increased. The number of branchesassociated with each of the consolidated states will increase along withthe complexity of the operations associated with each state transition.

The above described embodiments of the present invention are presentedfor the purposes of illustration and not of limitation. Since manyembodiments of the invention can be made without departing from thespirit and scope of the invention, the invention resides in the claimshereinafter appended. Furthermore, the present invention is not limitedto a particular implementation. For example, one or more steps ofmethods described above may be performed in a different order orconcurrently and still achieve desirable results. The invention may beimplemented in hardware, such as on an application specific integratedcircuit (ASIC) or on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Theinvention may also be implemented in software.

1. A method for generating a constrained codeword along an enumerativecoding graph having a plurality of states and a plurality of branches,the method comprising: receiving a dataword; encoding the dataword alongthe enumerative coding graph to generate an enumerative codeword,wherein each branch of the enumerative coding graph is associated withat least two bits of the enumerative codeword; and precoding theenumerative codeword to generate the constrained codeword.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein the enumerative coding graph comprises a dual-bitenumerative coding graph.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein theenumerative coding graph comprises a triple-bit enumerative codinggraph.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of states and theplurality of branches form a plurality of paths through the enumerativecoding graph, each path through the enumerative coding graph defining arespective enumerative codeword.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein eachstate of the enumerative coding graph is associated with at least twocardinalities.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the encoding comprises:comparing the dataword with the at least two cardinalities associatedwith a state in the enumerative coding graph; in response to thecomparing: selecting a branch associated with the state; and generatingthe at least two bits of the enumerative codeword.
 7. The method ofclaim 6, wherein the encoding further comprises calculating a modifieddataword in response to the comparing.
 8. A method for decoding aconstrained codeword along an enumerative coding graph having aplurality of states and a plurality of branches, the method comprising:receiving the constrained codeword; decoding the constrained codewordusing a postcoder; and decoding the postcoded codeword along theenumerative coding graph, wherein each set of at least two bits of thepostcoded codeword is associated with a branch of the enumerative codinggraph.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein each state of the enumerativecoding graph is associated with at least two cardinalities.
 10. Themethod of claim 9, wherein decoding the postcoded codeword along theenumerative coding graph comprises summing each of the cardinalitiesassociated with the sets of at least two postcoded codeword bits.
 11. Asystem for generating a constrained codeword along an enumerative codinggraph having a plurality of states and a plurality of branches, thesystem comprising: an enumerative encoder that encodes a receiveddataword along the enumerative coding graph to generate an enumerativecodeword, wherein each branch of the enumerative coding graph isassociated with at least two bits of the enumerative codeword; and aprecoder that encodes the enumerative codeword to generate a constrainedcodeword.
 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the enumerative codinggraph comprises a dual-bit enumerative coding graph.
 13. The system ofclaim 11, wherein the enumerative coding graph comprises a triple-bitenumerative coding graph.
 14. The system of claim 11, wherein theplurality of states and the plurality of branches form a plurality ofpaths through the enumerative coding graph, each path through theenumerative coding graph defining a respective enumerative codeword. 15.The system of claim 11, wherein each state of the enumerative codinggraph is associated with at least two cardinalities.
 16. The system ofclaim 15, wherein the enumerative encoder: compares the dataword withthe at least two cardinalities associated with a state in theenumerative coding graph; selects a branch associated with the statebased on the comparison; and generates the at least two bits of theenumerative codeword based on the comparison.
 17. The system of claim16, wherein the enumerative encoder calculates a modified dataword inresponse to the comparison.
 18. A system for decoding a constrainedcodeword along an enumerative coding graph having a plurality of statesand a plurality of branches, the system comprising: a postcoder thatdecodes a received constrained codeword; an enumerative decoder thatdecodes the postcoded codeword along an enumerative coding graph whereineach set of at least two bits of the postcoded codeword is associatedwith a branch of the enumerative coding graph.
 19. The system of claim18, wherein each state of the enumerative coding graph is associatedwith at least two cardinalities.
 20. The system of claim 19, wherein theenumerative decoder decodes the postcoded codeword along the enumerativecoding graph by summing each of the cardinalities associated with thesets of at least two postcoded codeword bits.